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| Intro to Socialization | Sociological Theories | Psychological Theories |
- immigrant families
- Introduction:
Every day society is invaded by hundreds of thousands of savages, (in America alone, we are confronted with close to 10,000 of these "savages" everyday). Who are these people? Infants. (Alimentary canal with a lot of noise at one end and utter irresponsibility at the other (Bierstedt)). The dilemma that all societies face is how to turn these savages into, considerate, independent, moral human beings. How does society accomplish this formidable task? (Not always successfully, of course)-- through the process we call socialization.
"Socialization" is defined as the process by which we acquire our social identities and internalize the values, norms, statuses, and roles of the social world. [Schaefer: "Socialization is the process whereby people learn the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture" (p. 58).
Another word for learn is, "internalize." To sociologists, the social world around us is real-- as real as any physical object in the environment. (This stems from Durkheim and his Rules of Sociological Method, where he defined social facts as real entities to be studied).
The text book stresses that the process of socialization occurs through
interaction (p. 58). --But, we do become socialized without social interaction,
(as the term is defined). Examples: books, radio, television-- the latter
especially. Effects of violence on TV on behavior of children?
Types of Socialization:
Primary-- during the early years of life. The teaching of language and other cognitive skills.
Anticipatory-- learning which is directed toward one's future roles. College, Trade School, Law School, Medical School.
Developmental Socialization-- new learning is added to and blended with old in a relatively smooth and continuous process of development.
Reverse Socialization-- the younger generation transfers knowledge
to the older generation. This occurs mostly in industrial societies where
the pace of technological change is very rapid, a good example is children
teaching their parents how to use computers. Here are some other examples:
- rapid social change in the 60's requiring a revision of old attitudes about race, sex, etc.
- technological growth
- modernizing countries that send their youth to industrialized nations to bring back knowledge
- Einstein-- the theory of relativity came out of the social environment in which he was educated. The British, from the Newtonian School focused on absolutes; The concept of relativity (in philosophy and the sociology of knowledge) was "foreign" to them. Einstein, on the other hand spent several years at the Vienna where the question of relativity in philosophy was a heated topic of discussion. It was logical for him to apply it to physics when attempting to explain deviances which Newtonian physics could not account for.
- Our emotional character, of showing love, hate, excitement, pride, etc. are all obtained through socialization. (Kissing or rubbing noses?)
- Our behavioral skills and aptitudes are acquired through socialization. (Hunting with a bow and arrow or designing rocket motors).
Resocialization-- this involves a sharp break with the past.
The military is a good example. --"Officer and a Gentleman" -- the military,
prisons, religious cults, etc.
Some Key Features of Socialization:
Socialization differs markedly from society to society with regard to what people become because the values and norms are quite different. Example:
- Urie Bronfenbrenner; Two Worlds of Childhood. Describes some
of the child-rearing practices in the former Soviet Union. Everything was
oriented towards the group and cooperation. In the United States
individual competition is evident and children are praised for their efforts
in the classroom. (In some cases, the class roll is posted and children
are given stars for attendance, mastering multiplication tables, etc.).
Bronfenbrenner describes a different situation in soviet classrooms.
Children are grouped according to rows and each row is called a "link."
Children's work is evaluated as a group or "link" effort. Slackers are
publicly confronted by groups of students. This illustrates how in
the former USSR emphasis was placed upon the group and group conformity
which contrasts with the United States where we stress individual excellence
and independence.
Socialization can also differ by region-- whether you call it the "War of the Great Rebellion," or "The War for Southern Independence against Northern Aggression," for example.
Socialization is an on-going, life-long process-- It never stops. (But most research indicates that socialization that takes place during infancy and childhood is most important).
Socialization is a critical process-- It enables society to reproduce itself socially as well as biologically. It is what enables the United States, for example, to be passed down from generation to generation. If we didn't succeed in socializing our children into accepting our values, beliefs, norms, institutions, customs, roles, etc., our nation and the principles behind it would quickly vanish. In many respects, the most important thing we will do in our lifetime will be to socialize our children.
Socialization is the process through which we develop our own individual
personalities: Our cognitive beliefs, perceptions, intellectual concepts
of how the world is put together.
- Biology sets some limitations, obviously. (Men can't have babies. Short people won't do as well on the basket ball court as tall ones. Shorter people may tend to run faster on long distance runs, etc.).
- Culture and the social structure of society, on the other hand, sets up the general rules and positions (to be filled). Basically they set forth the opportunities. They make it important to be tall, short, etc.
Don't confuse this with the question of free will, both views can be be determinist. (We can be locked into a behavior pattern just as effectively through socialization as we can be through genetic make-up). What influences who or what we become? (We've already said something about this when we discussed culture).
The key question: "Which is more important in determining what we become: nature (heredity) or nurture (environment)? This question is critical because of the socio-political outcomes it will produce. The stance that society takes regarding this question determines the degree of freedom allowed its citizens.
For example, if people in power take a herediteranian view, the implication is that certain classes are superior or inferior to others genetically. (Society may try to rectify this through drastic measures such as extermination or forced sterilization, or it may simply restrict opportunity by closing out education and certain jobs to those believed to be inferior). The implication of this "nature" argument, is that society can do little to help these disadvantaged people beyond measures designed to keep them out of the way of the more "capable" members of society? Head start, affirmative action, and similar pro grams are, according to this view a waste of money that could be better spent elsewhere.
- This theme has been popular in books and film for many years: The 1938 British movie, "Pygmalion," with Leslie Howard and Wendy Hiller addresses this issue directly. (The Englishmen have a wager between them over whether or not they can turn an unpolished lower class girl into a society person). Later (1964) that story was made into an Oscar-winning motion picture, a musical entitled, "My Fair Lady," with Rex Harrison and Audrey Hepburn. (Harrison won the Oscar for best actor) Today we use the term, "Pygmaleon Effect" to refer to sitations where people do well by virtue of the fact that they are predicted to do well.
- Another, more recent example is the movie, Trading Places, starring Dan Akroyd and Eddie Murphy. Dan Akroyd is the rich, Harvard-educated, successful young business man (stock analyst). Eddie Murphy is the street bum, derelict, begging for money. A wager is made by two rich brothers for whom Akroyd works. (Is it nature or is it Nurture?) Will the right environment turn a street bum into a corporate prince? In the movie we are lead to believe that it will.
This is a simplistic view! We can't train anybody to be a pro
baseball player, quarterback; nor can most people become doctors, nuclear
physicists, or fashion models. Nature, as we have said, sets limits on
what we can become, while nurture (society) determines what potentials
we can tap-- society puts certain values on certain skills. We are a product
of the complex interaction between nature and nurture. Here are some examples:
- In selecting talent: Take the top 25% of an 11th grade class. Studies have shown that for those from lower class families, only 50% go on to college. Compare this to the figure of 90% for those kids from upper class families. Now, among the weaker students-- those not in the top 25% of their high school class, from low income families, only 6% go on to college; from high income families, the corresponding figure is 26% -- and we haven't even addressed the questin of the type of college, and quality of education.
- I.Q. tests are supposed to measure innate intelligence-- the capacity to learn... but do they? The Pygmaleon Effect: Rosenthal and Jackobsen (1968) did an experiment in which they tested all the students in an elementary school for I.Q. They then randomly selected a group of elementary school students and told their teachers that these pupils were "late bloomers," and would spurt ahead in the upcoming school year. (This was a concocted story. No tests were given that even remotely indi cated this). One year later they tested all the students again and, miraculously, these students all did much better on the I.Q. tests. Why? What happened? These students showed marked improvement over the other students because of the teachers' expectations. They expected more out of the "special" group of students and gave them more attention. (The patterns of interaction were different). The teachers expected more out of these children and got it. The Pygmaleon effect has some frightening implications for the way children are educated. It's not purely an objective system.
Measuring the Influence of Biology
vs Environment:
Identical twin studies: Genetically the same, but reared in separate environments. (Sociobiologists point to the many similarities among such twins). A recent study of identical twins revealed some fascinating similarities-- when two brothers who were separated at birth were married; to whom they were married; hobbies; etc. But they also reveilled some interesting dissimilarities, too. So the question is still unsettled. Culture and the social environment did produce some significant differences. Schaefer points out that identical twins separated at birth but raised in similar environments are remarkably similar-- however, those raised in very different environments show marked differences.
Birth order in families: Siblings are genetically similar, yet they become quite different people. It has been shown that position in the family (birth order) can determine personality traits. Oldest: bossy, guilt-ridden, over-achiever; Middle: good manipulators, negotiators, rule younger brothers and sisters; battle with older sibs for influence and attention; Youngest: spoiled, adventuresome, laid-back
Animal studies:
- Monkeys: The famous Harlow studies-- took infants away from moms-- those raised in isolation became warped, frightened, histile, anti social. Impregnated females would not care for their young and abused them.
- Geese: this is somewhat different. Conrad Lorenz learned that there is a critical time period after Goslings (and other birds) hatch when they "identify" their parents" -- imprinting. Anything that happens to be infront of them at that critical time will be their parents. (A dog, cat, human, etc.). Thus, "Biology sets the stage, but circumstance determines the results."
- Tragic experiment of Friedrich II in the 13th century. He arranged to have children raised with a minimum of social contact and social interaction. He felt that in this "pure" state, free from corrupting influences of his times, man-- the noble beast in man would emerge. What language would he speak? Hebrew? Greek? Latin? Experiment was a failure. Without love and attention the children all died.
- Kingsley Davis' studies of children raised in isolation:
- Anna: illegitimate-- grandfather kept her in an attic for 6 years. By the age of 10 she had reached the level of socialization of a 2- 3 year old. Anna died at the age of 10 --(Hit by a car).
- could speak simple words and phrases
- could play with building blocks
- was able to wash hands
- would follow simple directions
- Isabelle: Grandfather kept her and her deaf-mute mother in a dark room. Isabelle, unlike Anna, had physical contact with another human being; When she was found she hated men, behaved like an animal, and was believed to be deaf and retarded (but, in fact was not).
- A trained team of doctors and psychologists-- helped her spurt through the stages of development. By the age of 8.5 she had reached a normal level of development for a child of her chronological age. Why? Because of the social interaction with mother while she was growing up.
- Genie-- 1970; 13-year old girl was discovered-- She had been confined in room (basically alone) since tha age of 20 months. People would not speak to her, kept her isolated from interaction-- she never could speak as a normal child world, despite intensive attempts at therapy.
- Feel pain in their stomachs-- but do not "know" that they're hungry.
- They do not know anything about themselves: male or female; white or brown skinned; blue or brown-eyed; kind or mean; smart or ignorant
- The cognitive: what we think, perceive, and remember.
- A Behaviorial component: our abilities, talents, and skills.
- An Emotional component: feelings, love, hate, sympathy, anger.
- Yanomamo Indians of Brazil encourage children to strike parents as a means of expressing anger.
- One New Guinea tribe, the Mundugumor, are a fierce and aggressive people-- always fighting.
- Another New Guinea tribe, the Arapesh, encourage passivity and cooperation abong members.
- Socialization and Personality
Development
It is believed that infants have no knowledge of anything beyond their immediate physical needs. They react to physical sensation.
Much of our personality is a reflection of our culture. Personalities
will differ according to culture as the following examples indicate:
Symbolic Interaction; (focuses on human beings interacting in everyday life). People interact by communicating with each other using symbols which have shared meanings. The point is that these shared symbols allow interaction and communication and make socialization possible. Animals communicate, but only we humans have language.
Charles Horton Cooley, (1864-1929):
Cooley developed the concept of the "looking glass self" -- our image of outselves can come only from our interaction within society. There can be no "I" until there's a "they." The "they" is all the people in the society in which we live. at first they are our parents, family, and other primary groups. Later the "they" becomes our teachers, peers, employers, pastors, etc.
We imagine how others see us. We, ourselves are always the result of
how we look to others. We gradually build up an image of ourselves from
the notions of thoers' opinions of us -- the "looking glass self."
- Example: A little girl is told from the very first years of her life that she is intelligent-- she will come to see herself as a very bright little girl-- she will internalize the picture of herself that all the people with whom she interacts reflect. She will think and act as if it were true, even if she is only of average intelligence. Now, what happens when she interacts with another set of "others" (a different primary group from the one she's been associating with since birth-- her schoolmates, for example)? The first days of elementary school are very stress-producing, as we all know. No longer is our little girl so smart - she's just part of the crowd. How many of you have felt the same thing? What about your first year of college? What did that do for your selfimage? Bright star in High School-- interstellar void in college.
- our perceptions of how we appear to others
- our perceptions of how others judge us
- our feelings about those judgements
Another symbolic interactionist, philosopher and social psychologist) Mead said that the self has two parts: the "I" and the "me." Mead claimed that the "me" accounts for similarities between people while the "I" accounts for differencs between people.
- The "I" is the part of the self that is innate-- containing the spontaneous, natural, creative, special aspects of one's self.
- The "me" is the part of the self that's socialized-- the part that has internalized the values, norms, statuses, roles of society. The "I" represents our inner demands, while the "me" represents the societal demands.
Reference Groups: These are groups of people whom are meaningful
in the development of the self.
- Example: Girl who wants to become an actress-- her reference group will be actresses, in general. (She may subscribe to the trade journals; read everything that has to do with the field of drama, watch all the movies, etc.).
- Another example: Boy wants to become a Army Officer-- builds models of tanks, reads la lot of military history, tours the Military Academy, etc.
- Here are some examples which demonstrate this further and illustrate the difference between reference groups and role models. Within each of the examples given above, there may be a specific person-- a personal hero-- whom a boy or girl holds as an ideal to aspire to. In the case of the actress, it may be Jodi Foster or Jane Fonda. In the caseof the army officer, it might be George Patton or George MacArthur. Specific people are role models.
- Significant others are real persons.
- The generalized other represents societal values.
Psychology focuses on the individual and therefore much of what follows looks at internal processes within the mind as they affect socialization. However, the discipline of psychology does not ignore external factors in the socialization process. Infact. there is a whole school, "social psychology" that has, ineffect, blended the disciplines of sociology and psychology.
Psychoanalytic Theory:
Sigmund Freud (1856-1938): Unlike Cooley and Mead who viewed socialization as a process that gradually brought society and the individual into allignment or harmony with eachother, Freud saw society and the individual as being in constant conflict. He did not see the individual a social product as did Cooley and Mead, but was interested in the constraints that society placed on the natural impulses of people. To Freud, socialization was forced on the individual and the individual tried to resist the rules of society thoroughout his life.
Freud's Components of the Personality:
To Freud, the infant was; self-centered; always seeking personal pleasure; aggressive; amoral; egocentric. He further argued that there were three components to the personality; the id, ego, and superego.
- From the very beginning, parents force their will on the pleasure-seeking ID, or the unconscious part of the personality which has desires of various sorts --hunger, sex, pleasure, etc. and seeks immediate satisfaction of these desires. For example on the new infant they impose such rigors as feeding schedules and toilet training to name a few.
- Since children need love and approval (and also are weaker than their parents), they try to obey these demands-- They develop an EGO. The ego is the rational part of the personality. (Don't confuse it with a sense of right and wrong or conscience). The ego realizes that the person will be punished for violating the norms of society so it attempts to satisfy the demands of the id in ways that are acceptable to society. Example, the id is frustrated and wants child to strike parents, but ego realizes that this is not a "wise" move and, instead, the child strikes her doll.
- Around the age of five, the child begins to realize just how enormous the power is that society and his/her parents hold over him/her. Children actually become fearful of the punishments which could result from the id's aggressive and sexual impulses. The conscience develops. This is what Freud would call the "SUPEREGO." The superego actually tries to suppress the id. It represents the social constraints (now internalized by the individual) whereas the id represents uncontrolled inner desires. (Now the ego, which before only had to worry about controlling the id and channeling its desires into socially acceptable measures of behavior, has to contend with the on-going struggle between the id and superego. It tries to moderate the two).
- Example: Child wants cookie. Id says, "Go for it! Get it now! Don't pussyfoot around!" Superego says, "No! It's wrong to be greedy and want that cookie! Give it to the starving kids in developing nations!" Ego says, "You'd better ask mom for it. If she says it's OK, then you can eat it."
The Theory of Psycho-Sexual Development:
Freud proposed that children passed through several stages as they grew. It was important that they negotiate each of these stages successfully-- if not, they would experience difficulties later in life. The particular problem in the adult personality could be traced to the strage of development that the child was "frustrated" in. Here are some greatly simplified examples:
- During the oral stage, babies receive gratification by the stimulation of their gums and mouths (pacifiers). Adults who display traits of excessive drinking or compulsive eating, Freud would argue, were frustrated at this oral stage.
- During the anal stage, babies and young children (up to the age of about three) obtain pleasure through excretory activity. Adults who are stingy, stubborn, or generally compulsive were frustrated at this stage of development.
- Later on, during the phallic stage, the area of pleasure shifts to the sex organs. Young children are attracted toward the parent of the opposite sex. (In females we call this the electra complex. In males, it is the Oedipus complex). According to Freud, both boys and girls suffer from what he called the castration complex. Boys fear that they will be castrated. Girls fear they already have been castrated. Freud claimed that children would mature only by resolving this complex. If not, they could become "fixated" or "delayed" or have their interests shift from one object to the other which might impede sexual maturity. Frustration experienced during the phallic stage could lead to serious problems in personality adjustment and interpersonal relationships.
Erik Erikson's Eight Life Stages:
Erikson, a psychologist, was one of Freud's students. He expanded and integrated Freud's theories and also the theories of Cooley and Mead. He was one of the first to write about socialization as it occurs throughout life. Erikson theorized eight stages of development for humans. Each stage brings about physiological changes and new social situations. The individual must adapt to these changes and experiences a crisis at each stage. Erikson's theory places heavy emphasis on the early stages of life-- Stages I through IV, (ages 0 through 11) because they set the stage for the rest of one's life. However, he maintains we have many chances to alter our lives and that the detrimental effects of one stage can be off-set by adjustments at later stages.
- Stage I: (1 year) (Infancy) Trust vs Mistrust: Children are totally dependent upon adults. If their needs are met with warmth and love, kids develop a feeling of trust-- there is security, reliability, comfort in the world. On the other hand, if their needs are not met or people caring for them are not dependable and affectionate, kids develop mistrust-- the world is a frightening, suspicious, insecure place.
- Stage II: (2+3 yrs) Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt: Kids learn how to walk, talk, climb, open and close things, control their bodily functions. If parents allow children freedom to try and even to fail, they will gain confidence that they can control their lives-- autonomy. But, if parents are critical, impatient, and over-protective, the child develops a sense of shame and doubt in his abilities.
- Stage III (4+5 yrs) Initiative vs. Guilt: Children at this stage, try to extend their abilities, explore, initate, exploit opportunities and try new adventures. If parents praise children's efforts, and courage them to find out about the world on their own, kids develop feelings of self-worth and initiative. However, if kids are punished and ridiculed for their failures in these attempts, they develop feelings of guilt. (This will determine whether they should try to become leaders).
- Stage IV: (6-11 yrs) Industry vs Inferiority: (Elementary school). The social setting of the school replaces that of the home. Children get rewards for following the rules. If they are praised in their attempts to learn about the world and to develop talents to live in it successfully, they will acquire a sense of industry. But, if they do poorly in school and are not encuraged in their studies, they will develop a sense of inferiority.
- Stage V: (12-18 yrs) Identity vs Role Confusion: Young people draw upon all past experiences in order to develop a sense of self. The "looking glass self" is very important as the adolescent relies upon peers for his/her own self-image. If the adolescent cn understand the aspects of his or herself, the ego is strengthened and a sense of identity develops-- a clearly defined "self." Youth will know who they are, where they're going, their goals and what they can do. However if adolescents arrive at this point with feelings of mistrust, doubt, shame, guilt, or inferiority, they can't integrate personalities and role confusion results. The self will be hazy-- ill defined.
- Stage VI: (young adulthood) Intimacy vs Isolation: Learning to make close friends, falling in love, starting families--- If young adults have acquired all the positive traits from the previous stages, they will be able to share and give themselves without fear-- this is intimacy. However, if they have acquired negative self- feelings from the past stages, there will be isolation-- the inability to get close to others.
- Stage VII: (middle age) Generativity vs Self- absorption: At this stage, life is moving on and there is little possibility to change direction. People will be comcerned with those outside their immediate world -- the welfare of the younger generation, for example, what Erikson calls generativity, if they feel that they, themselves have led useful, productive lives. On the other hand, people who believe that their lives have been a failure will fail to establish a sense of generativity and instead exhibit, self-absorption.
- Stage VIII: (old age) Integrity vs Dispair: Elderly people must come to terms with death. Integrity gives a person the ability to look back on his or her life with satisfaction and self-acceptance-- recognizing that there have been good times, bad times, joy and pain. Despair results when a person sees hislife as a series of failures and disappointments and realizes that it's too late to change anything.
Jean Piaget developed and articulated a highly respected and influential theory of cognitive development. What do we mean by "cognitive"? Cognitive abilities are intellectual abilities, (perceiving, remembering, reasoning, calculating, believing). It places emphasis on the internal processes of the mind as it matures through interaction with the social environment. Piaget showed that human beings gradually passed through a series of stages of cognitive development. (One of the ways he did this was to study children playing games and see how the rules developed). There were four stages to his model:
- Stage I; SENSORI-MOTOR (0-2 years): Infants are not rule-bound because they can't understand and are not aware of the world up to 8 months. After that they are aware that ther's something out there but can't understand the rules.
- Stage II; PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (2-7 years): At this stage, children can't hadnle concepts of speed, weight, number, quality, causality; When you give them two glasses of water, tall-thin one and short fat one, they will always say the taller glass has more water in it because it is taller, even when the volume of water in the short glass is clearly greater. More importantly, from our point of view, children at this stage can't take the roles of another-- can't understand the feelings of others, nor do they care to understand. They're very egocentric.
- Stage III; CONCRETE OPERATIONAL (7 TO 12 years): In this stage, thinking is tied to the concrete world--- real situations, not abstract ones. Kids begin to see the "world out there" and society as something imposed from the outside-- morality in society exists an is unchangeable-- it is imposed upon them and they must obey. Children feel that they must obey the rules, but do not feel that they have to believe in them.
- Stage IV; FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (13+ years): At this stage formal, abstract thought is obtained). Abstract personal goals-- utopian social conditions-- "adolescent idealism." Young adults come to realize tht the rules are good for all members of the group. Rules are necessary for the existence of the social order. However, they also realize that rules are made by mutual consent and can be changed by mutual consent.
There are many:
- Family-- earliest and most important; also gives us social status.
- School-- gives us many of the values of the larger society.
- Peer Group-- a place where we can challenge many of the values of our family and the school.
- Mass Media-- 95% of American homes have a T.V. set.
- Secondary Groups-- religious, company we work for, military, political parties, the police, etc.
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