I. Two primary characteristics of Americans of Asian
Descent are GROWTH AND DIVERSITY (see Parrillo:
Chapter 8). They comprise a diverse group that is one of the
fastest-growing segments of the
A. GROWTH-- as
of 1990, there were 6.5 million people of Asian descent in this country-- up
from 1.4 million in 1970. In the year 2000, there were 10.2 million
1. Asian
Americans comprise 3.6 percent of the
-- the
third largest minority population in this country. (3.6
percent is derived from those who reported “Asian Alone”
ancestry. 4.2 percent reported
“Asian Alone” and Asian in combination with some other ancestry.
2. Between
1981 and 1990, over 2.73 million Asians migrated to the
a. The countries providing the largest number of immigrants during this period were:
|
Immigration between 1981 and 1990 (2.7m) |
|
East and Southeast
Asian American Populations |
||
|
|
# of immigrants |
1980 |
1990 |
2000 |
|
|
548,700 |
775,000 |
1,407,000 |
1,864,000 |
|
|
333,800 |
355,000 |
799,000 |
1,073,000 |
|
|
298,900 |
806,000 |
1,645,000 |
2,423,000 |
|
|
281,000 |
262,000 |
615,000 |
1,110,000 |
|
|
250,700 |
|
800,000 |
1,700,000 |
|
|
98,200 |
|
|
|
|
|
47,000 |
701,000 |
848,000 |
795,000 |
|
"Other |
631,400 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
** Parrillo calls them "Asian Indians"
and discusses them in a chapter entitled "Other Asian and Middle Eastern
Americans", p. 338.
3. By way of comparison, during the
years 1981-1990, over 3.45 million migrants came to the
B. DIVERSITY--
Our text notes that whites commonly refer to Asian Americans as ORIENTALS,
lumping them all together. This is a mistake because Asians are different--
coming from a wide array of differing cultures. Filipinos,
Chinese, Vietnamese, Koreans, Japanese, Asian Indians, Laotians, Cambodians,
Malays, Napali, Sikkimese, Sri
Lankan,
1. One writer has commented, "The stereotyped portrait of Asians as expressionless people with their heads bowed is just as useless as the stereotype of the cigar store Indian."
C. Poverty and
Wealth:
II.
A. There are
over 2.4 million Chinese Americans in the
B. Their migration began before the "New Europeans" came to this country after the Civil War.
C. Functionalism and Conflict theory work hand-in-hand to explain their experience here. The country wanted and needed their labor but would not tolerate their alien culture. ANTI-CHINESE FEELINGS LED TO THE PASSAGE OF THE CHINESE EXCLUSION ACT IN 1882 WHICH WAS NOT REPEALED UNTIL 1943.
D. Of the many hardships faced by the Chinese, perhaps the worst was the lack of women. Sex ratios were incredibly out of balance-- 1000 men to 1 woman!
E. 1898 Supreme Court ruling that confirmed the right of American-born Chinese to be citizens!
F. 1943-- More Chinese allowed to immigrate. Also, the first time that foreign-born Chinese we allowed to become citizens.
G. 1965-- Chinese begin to arrive
in large numbers after passage of the 1965 Immigration Act.
III. General Value Orientation (for all
Asians, including Chinese)
|
adherence to behavior considered "appropriate" |
|
control of aggression |
|
concern for what one does in the presence of others |
|
no sibling rivalry |
|
politeness |
|
gentleness |
|
unselfish sacrifice for the pleasure of others |
|
social control that derives from external sanctions (Westerners use internal guilt) |
|
shame (example of external sanction) |
|
loss of face (example of external sanction) |
|
bringing shame or dishonor to the family name (example of external sanction) |
|
control over emotion (open displays of emotion, even within the family, are rare |
|
emphasis on family, including extended family |
|
respect for elders |
|
men are awarded superior status |
|
heavy emphasis on educational achievement |
IV. Push-Pull factors responsible for the earliest migration of Chinese to California:
A. 1850-1864:
Push factors: Environmental; flooding, famine; Political (Tai-Ping Revolution)-- Pull factors: Discovery of Gold in
B. Many Chinese were sojourners
who intended to return to the homeland after making their fortunes in the
C. By
1860, Chinese comprised 7 percent of
D. After the Civil War in the
1870's the economy turned sour and
1.
E.
By the 1880s, the
1. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882-- This was the first time that the federal government had passed an embargo against a specific race of immigrants. This Act prohibited Chinese laborers from entering the country, but did allow for other exceptions. During the decade, additional legislation was passed that further restricted Chinese immigration.
2. The Exclusion Act was renewed in 1892 and extended indefinitely in 1902.
F. In 1943,
during the war with Japan, the ban on Chinese immigration was ended with the
passage of a quota bill that applied to Chinese.
1. The quotas applied to anyone in the world of Chinese descent who wanted to immigrate to the United States. But there were important exceptions to the quotas covering refugees, displaced persons, and brides.
G. The Immigration Act of 1965 was the first to bring Chinese under the general umbrella covering all immigration to the United States.
V. The Chinese, today:
A. Parrillo points out that Chinese are over represented in both the upper and lower segments of society,
1. Thirty percent are in professional/technical positions compared to 15 percent (of the white labor force.
2. Twenty-four percent are in low-skilled/service occupations compared to 7 percent (for whites).
B. Chinese also have a higher
median family income than whites-- probably because in the Chinese family, more
members are in the labor force than the norm for U.S. white family.
1. Numerous writers, including Parrillo, assert that the heavy emphasis Chinese give to family has much to do with their success in American Society. Native and African Americans have been at a distinct disadvantage, suffering severe disruption of family and tribal life early on with continued social and economic discrimination later on that disrupted family life.
2. It might be argued that immigration restrictions against Chinese women also placed stresses on the Chinese family, but since so many Chinese men were sojourners, to begin with, it would be difficult to draw parallels.
C. Parrillo
presents information that suggests that the strength of the Chinese Family may
be weakening today-- citing "increasing rebelliousness, criminality, and
radicalism of many Chinese youth" as a current concern of Chinatowns.
VI.
A. There is a
paradox about
1. overcrowding-- population densities in Chinatowns will run 10 to 12 times the larger city average.
2. deterioration-- Chinatowns are usually located in older, deteriorating parts of cities with slum-like conditions.
3. poverty-- Chinatowns have large populations of poor.
B. Parrillo
describes D.Y. Yuan's four-stage development of Chinatowns which illustrates
the difference between forced segregation (either through direct or indirect
means) and voluntary segregation: In your instructor's opinion, this
theory is not unique to Chinatowns, but can serve as a model for many ethnic
enclaves.
1. Involuntary Choice: Prejudice and discrimination in the larger society forced Chinese into ethnic enclaves. (One example of legal restrictions against the Chinese is the legislation against miscegenation-- Towards the end of the 19th century, 14 states had laws forbidding Chinese to marry whites).
2. Defensive Insulation: In this case a minority settles together for mutual protection against the dominant group.
3. Voluntary Segregation: Important here is the emergence of common identity, group consciousness, or sense of community.
4. Gradual
Assimilation: In this stage, Chinese Americans adopt the values and
beliefs of the dominant culture-- "The
C. The social
organization of
1. TSU-- the CLANS. TSU originated in the Chinese practice that families with common ancestors unite. In the United States this meant that Chinese immigrants who shared the same name affiliated with each other. This practice provided mutual assistance and also control over the youth. There is some evidence that this practice is weakening and the functions that the Clans once performed are now being taken over by governmental agencies. Schaefer argues that even the Chinese extended family is losing influence today in the younger generations as family structure becomes more Americanized. Examples of Clans or TSUs today:
a.
the TOM's of
b. the CHIN's
and MOY's of
c. the LEE's
of
2. HUI-KUAN-- benevolent associations. These associations were based upon one's district of origin in China. They provided social support, financial loans, and often acted as arbitrators in settling disuptes between members.
a. Often several of these organizations would combine and form an "umbrella organization"-- "The Six Chinese Companies" or "Chinese Consolidated Benevolent association" (CCBA).
b. The president of the combined Hui-Kuan (or CCBA) often acted as the "Mayor" of Chinatown, representing the community to outsiders in disputes.
c. The CCBA was successful to a degree in protecting Chinese Americans from racism, but many Chiinese considered it to be too authoritarian. In addition, to avoid presenting a negative image of their community, the CCBA also tended to play down difficulties experienced in Chinatown.
3. TONG-- Secret Societies: The secret societies were formed by groups possessing common interests. They were often associated with criminal activity, but many Tongs were honest organizations legitimately working towards goals that were consistent with the greater American society.
a. On the illegal side, TONGs provided a wide variety of services-- drugs; gambling; and prostitution. (Parrillo's description of the immigrants' experience suggests that they must have experienced very high levels of frustration over discrimination, very hard work under dangerous conditions, and of course, the severe shortage of women).
b. Some authorities on
D. Social
problems in Chinatowns: In the 1960s the problems experienced by
residents of Chinatowns became apparent. With the increasing immigration
from China in recent years, they have become even more apparent.
Generally speaking, they are:
1. poor
health and marginal health care
2. high rates of suicide
3. run-down housing and crowded living conditions
4. rising crime rates
5. poor working conditions
6. inadequate care for the elderly
7. weak representation for labor
VI. Chinese-Americans outside Chinatowns:
A. Today, most Chinese live outside Chinatowns. In Chicago, only about 18 percent of the Chinese population lives in Chinatown. In New York City, the corresponding figure is about 25 percent.
VII. General Conclusions:
A. Traditionally, Chinese Americans have been politically inactive in this country, although this was not always by choice. One survey of 100,000 people with Chinese surnames in New York City's Chinatown showed that fewer than 6,000 were registered to vote (Schaefer, p.382).
B. Younger Chinese tend to be more militant and have actively participated in the political system to win equal opportunity especially in employment.
C. One other social problem that has concerned many is the rise in Chinese youth gang activity since the mid-1970's
D. There have been signs that
amalgamation is proceeding at an ever-accelerating pace:
1. In the past, many states (29) declared intermarriage between Asians and Whites to be illegal. This was struck down by a 1967 Supreme Court ruling, (Loving vs the State of Virginia). Today over 25 percent of Chinese under the age of 24 marry a non-Chinese partner.
2. Dating attitudes and gender
roles of each succeeding generation have become more Americanized. In fact,
traditional norms appear to be cast aside for those of the dominant society,
which in turn, makes Chinese Americans more acceptable and less alien to
whites.
VIII. Japanese Americans: (McLemore, 1991, p. 200; Marden, 1992, p. 393) The patterns of immigration between the two groups-- Japanese Americans and Chinese Americans have been different, but today they have attained relatively similar proportions of the population.
A. Three
aspects of Japanese immigrants' experience in the United States that
distinguished them from the Chinese who preceded them:
1. Time
difference: Japanese were late arrivals, relatively speaking in comparison to
the Chinese:
a. By 1860 there were already 100,000 Chinese in the United States-- As late as 1868 citizens of Japan were forbidden to go abroad by the Japanese Government.
b. In 1885 immigration increased substantially when Hawaiian plantation owners signed an agreement with the Japanese government allowing contract workers to the island.
c. As Chinese immigration fell off in the 1890s, Japanese immigration picked up. It declined after 1908 after the "Gentlemen's Agreement" and stopped completely in 1924 with the passage of Johnson-Reed Act.
d. Between 1907 and 1920 many
Japanese immigrants were women-- the so-called "picture brides"-- who
could immigrate due to a loophole in the Gentlemen's Agreement which allowed
for spouses to migrate to the U.S.
2. Japanese immigrants (and their American-born descendants) were much more outspoken against racism and discrimination. They organized boycotts and demonstrations, published books, and worked hard to enlist the support of sympathetic whites.
3. Japan, itself, took a much more
active interest in what was happening to its immigrants all over the world.
a. A good
example is the School-Board crisis in San Francisco. The Board
decided to implement the Plessy vs.
1. The City
of
2. The State of
3. The President issued an executive order denying Japanese workers permission to enter the United States through Mexico, Canada, and Hawaii, unless their passports specifically allow it.
4. Japan reduced significantly the
number of passports allowing its citizens to travel to the United States.
Under the agreement, passports could be issued to
a.
non-laborers
b. laborers who lived in the
c. wives, parents, and children
of Japanese who had settled in the
d. Japanese who owned an interest in a
B. Japanese
sharply distinguish themselves according to the number of generations an
individual's family has been in the U.S. This is one way that they use to keep
track of the degree of acculturation to American society. Since Japanese
immigration has been relatively recent, these four categories serve to include
almost all the people of Japanese Ancestry in this country.
1.
Issei- First generation, born in
2. Nisei- Second generation, born in the U.S.
3. Sansei- Third generation (generally born after World War II)
4. Yonsei- Fourth generation
5. Gosei- Fifth generation
C. The Japanese who immigrated to the U.S. in the 1890's took jobs as laborers at low wages and worked hard. This brought them favor with companies (employers), but incurred the wrath of labor unions. Because of the anti-Asian sentiment that was prevalent in California, the state passed, in 1913, the Alien Land Act which specified that non-citizens could not own land. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 specified that Asians who were born abroad could not become naturalized citizens. Japanese were included under this act and this was confirmed in a 1922 Supreme Court Decision-- Ozawa vs the U.S. Therefore, Foreign-born Japanese were not allowed to own land in California.
D. One result of the Alien Land Act was that Japanese, in California, moved to the cities-- (They couldn't own their own farms). But union pressure in the cities prevented the Japanese from working in white-owned companies. As a result, they tended to open their own businesses-- grocery stores, hotels, small businesses offering a wide variety of goods and services. They tended to do very well but many were to lose everything after the start of World War II.
E. The Relocation Program:
1. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, martial law was declared in Hawaii Over 12,000 German, Italian, and Japanese aliens were arrested, and fears raged of espionage, sabotage, and an invasion of the West Coast by Japan.
2. On February 19, 1942 President Franklin Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 which moved more than 110,000 Japanese Americans to 10 relocation camps scattered throughout the U.S.
a. People with 1/8th Japanese Ancestry could be relocated-- Over 110,000 Japanese Americans were "relocated" during 1942 and the great majority were still in these camps when the Supreme Court declared, near the end of 1944, that the program had been illegal.
b. Ultimately, nearly 120,000 Japanese Americans were interred-- 5,981 children were born in the camps.
c. Japanese leaders decided to go peacefully with hopes of government sympathy later when tensions subsided. They were required to leave behind everything that they could not carry. Some sold homes and businesses at cut-rate prices. Others stored their goods or left them locked up in hopes that they would still be there upon return. Life in the camps was harsh-- not the comfortable living conditions depicted in government news releases.
d. The dollar loss was estimated to
be around 400,000,000 in 1940 dollars-- about 6 billion today. The evacuation
claims act of 1948 was passed and evacuees were paid 38,000,000 in 1948
dollars. Debate about the adequacy of this amount continued and in 1988
Congress passed a bill saying that "a grave injustice was done to both
citizens and permanent resident aliens of Japanese ancestry" by the
relocation program and that the relocation was a result of "racial
prejudice, wartime hysteria, and a failure of political leadership." The
bill agreed to award each of the estimated 60,000 survivors a payment of
$20,000. (President Reagan issued an apology to all those who had been
interred).
VIII. Today there are nearly 800,000 people of Japanese Ancestry in the United States. They are considered a "successful" minority
A. They have a higher median level of education than the white majority.
B. A higher percentage of Japanese-Americans are employed in professional and technical occupations.
C. The average income levels of native-born Japanese-Americans is higher than the white majority.
D. However, many
Japanese-Americans reject this notion of being a "success story"
because they feel that it hides the discrimination and prejudice they suffer
and the tremendous amount of work they must do to become successful.
