Numerous studies have described the changes expected to occur in the workplace of the twenty-first century. The nature of work, the demographics of the workers and the nature of workers' values are expected to be very different from what employers recognize today. As participating employers in the next century, local governments and local public personnel administrators will have to develop strategies for dealing with these changes. This paper seeks to discover the perceptions of a selected group of local government personnel administrators in Virginia concerning the nature of the future workplace and the strategies to deal with these changes.
Increasing the dynamism of the work force; providing for the needs of working families with children; bringing women, minorities and immigrants into the work force; improving the education and skills of employees; adapting to new technology; and forging a new social con tract with workers are not the only items on the nation's agenda between now and the year 2000. But they certainly are among the most important.
These items are human resources issues that won't go away by themselves. If nothing is done to focus national attention and action on these challenges, they are likely to remain unresolved at the beginning of the next century.
Robert W. Goddard, "Work Force 2000," Personnel Journal, vol. 68, no. 2 February, 1989.
Studies indicate that by the year 2000 substantial changes will take place in the American workplace. The workplace of the next century will be significantly different. Three categories of factors are expected to affect the workplace in the future: those affecting the workers; and changing values affecting workers. In order to prepare for these changes, local governments will have to become aware of, and respond to, these variables.
This discussion identifies the factors which, according to the available literature, will affect the nature of work and workers, specifically in the local government workplace, by the beginning of the twenty-first century. To determine the extent to which local governments in Virginia have identified and are preparing for these changes, the authors distributed a survey to personnel directors and administrators in those localities with populations over 25,000. The complied results of the survey describe specific strategies that local governments in Virginia expect to use to meet the challenges presented by the changing workplace.
Factors Affecting The Nature of Work in the Twenty-First Century
The available literature identifies four major factors which are expected to affect the nature of work in the twenty-first century. According to Workforce 2000: Work and Workers for the 21st Century, employment in the U.S. is expected to increase from 122.4 million to 139.9 million by the year 2000, with an average annual gain between 0.9% and 1.8%, a modest growth rate when compared to the average annual gain of 2.9% during the 1970s.(1) Manufacturing jobs for these workers will decrease considerably, from a high of 30% in 1955 to less than 17% by the year 2000.(2) The major increase in jobs is expected to come in the service and information industries. In Megatrend 2000 John Naisbitt and Patricia Aburdene describe the new jobs for the most part as high-paying professional and managerial positions, an indication of the "information economy." Workforce 2000, on the other hand, prefers to classify the trend as a symptom of a service-oriented economy.
In conjunction with the increase in service jobs, worker productivity is expected to increase due to greater reliance on automated systems. In fact, this increase is expected to double from a rate of 0.7% per year to 1.5% per year per worker.(3)
The expected nature of the work in the new service-based economy will be highly professional and technical. In fact, the fastest growing jobs are expected to be those requiring the most skills and education. Forty-one percent of the new jobs are in the three highest skill groups identified by Workforce 2000, compared to 24% of current jobs. Compared with 40% of current jobs, only 27% of new jobs are expected to fall into the lower skilled categories.(4) The occupations forecasted to increase faster than the average growth are technicians, service workers, and executive and managerial employees.(5)
The traditional emphasis on hierarchical management will give way to greater emphasis on team management. The priority for management in the workplace of the year 2000 will be on the knowledge of the individual rather than his or her position in the organization. Workers will likely have greater say in management decisions. Managers will resemble moderators rather than decision makers.(6) It is worth noting that, while management trends support the future use of team management, there is a significant distrust and opposition to the team concept on the part of some labor experts. Mike Parker and Jane Slaughter explore the negative effects of management's team concept, or "management by stress" in the American automobile industry in Choosing Sides: Unions and Team Concept.
Factors Affecting Workers in the Twenty-First Century
If work itself is expected to become more technical, requiring new management skills and advanced education, what will be the characteristics of those who will perform tomorrow's jobs? There is every indication that the workers in the year 2000 will be, first, older than today's. In the next 19 years, the oldest "baby-boomers" will reach the earliest retirement age. Between 1970 and 1980, life expectancy at age 65 increased more than 9%, but life expectancy at birth increased only 3% and the birth rate dropped. In fact, the fastest growing age group in the U.S. is that over 80. Eight years ago, those in the 16-24 age group constituted 25% of the work force, but now they are only 20%. By 1995, the percentage of the 16-24 age group is expected to drop to 16%.(7)
These statistics point to an older, more experienced work force which, in some respects, is good for productivity. Older workers will, however, require additional emphasis on the part of employers on benefits such as health care, retirement and pensions. Sources appear to be divided on the issue of whether this segment of the labor force will work longer, to age 70 and beyond, or whether this group will be inclined to elect early retirement. Organizations will find it more difficult to concentrate on retaining older workers while competing for new employees from a shrinking pool of young workers needed to replace retirees.
In addition, more than one source mentions that younger workers are not expected to be as well educated as they will need to be for the more technical society of the future. Presently only 30 % of 17-year-olds read well enough to enter college(8) By the year 2000, approximately 74% of Americans will finish high school, two-thirds of whom will graduate with adequate reading and mathematical skills.(9) Add to this trend the fact that the United States decreased its federal funding for education by almost one-third between 1980 and 1985, even though overall federal spending increased during this period by 21% in constant dollars. The tendency is likely to be continued de-emphasis on needed educational skills for the future workplace.(10)
Tomorrow's workforce is also expected to be composed of a larger share of women and minorities, according to Workforce 2000. Almost two-thirds of all new workers between now and the year 2000 will be women, and approximately 61% of all women of working age are expected to have jobs. Although women will likely not be concentrated in jobs that pay as much as jobs traditionally held by men, they are expected to more rapidly enter the higher-paying technical and professional fields compared with working women today.(11)
Minorities, especially blacks and Hispanics, are expected to be a larger share of new workers by the year 2000. By 1995, for example, blacks will constitute 11.5% of the new workers.(12) Indeed, non-whites are expected to make up 29% of new workers between now and the year 2000.(13)
Another feature of the workforce of the year 2000 is the increase in the share of immigrants. The United States is expected to add approximately 600,000 legal and illegal immigrants to population between now and the twenty-first century.(14) Of that number, approximately two-thirds is expected to enter the labor force, primarily in the South and West.
In fact, the only group which is expected to decline in its share of the labor force by the year 2000 is white males. Over the next thirteen years, the white native-born male share of the entering labor force is expected to be 15%, compared with 47% before 1986. Immigrants, minorities and women together are expected to comprise more than five-sixths of the entering labor force membership between 1985 and 2000.(15)
Values and Concerns in the Workplace of the Twenty-First Century
The values affecting workers who will hold jobs in the next century will more likely emphasize self-fulfillment rather than support of traditional institutional goals. A bell-wether of this trend has been identified in the differences in attitudes toward entrepreneurship, for example. Among Harvard MBA graduates, those in the classes between 1942-78 indicate that 30% are self-employed. In the class of 1984, however, 87% indicated that they intended to start their own companies,(16) clearly a sign of increased self-reliance among those holding advanced business degrees.
Plummer has developed a chart providing the direction of emphasis from traditional to new values, reflecting a decrease in institutional values and reliance upon a higher standard of living as goals for life. Workers in the next century will be more likely to individualize their goals, to define for themselves the meaning of success. Work will cease to be an end, but rather will become a means to the end of self-fulfillment: TABULAR DATA OMITTED
In general, the new values will require that employers recognize a need for diversity, less conformity, and increasing expectations of success without the need to work increasingly long hours. The "company man" will likely not be a feature of the workplace of the twenty-first century.
The Role of Employer in the Twenty-First Century
What do these changes mean for local government in the next century? Naisbitt forecasted in 1982 and again in 1990 that the trend towards decentralization in government would be a feature of the year 2000. Others have underscored his opinion. What this tendency indicates for local government in general is an expected continued decrease in the size of the federal government, with a corresponding increase in growth at the state and local government levels.(18) Civil Service 2000 underscores the perception of a federal workforce maintaining its overall size but not substantially increasing in numbers. As employers, they will have to contend with the same new trends in work, workers and values as private businesses. It will become important for this decentralization level of government to prepare itself for these changes.
The federal government has addressed the challenges of the coming century through Civil Service 2000, in which recruitment and retention strategies are suggested. The National Commission on the Public Service has addressed the concern of the federal government in Leadership for America: Rebuilding the Public Service. One method to increase the talent for pool and retain the skilled workers which will be needed in government in the years to come is to rebuild trust in the public service. The Commission calls for leadership on the part of the President, Congress, educational institutions, government agencies and the public to support a broad plan to bolster the image and renew the commitment of public employees at the federal level.
Strategies for Meeting Future Challenges
The literature, especially that associated with employers in the private sector, is not remiss in suggesting strategies for dealing with the changes in the workplace of the next century. Local government personnel management can find a number of creative methods of dealing with changes in work, workers and values that private companies are already finding useful.
First, because the work performed by tomorrow's workers will become more technical, most futurists believe that computers will be of major importance in contributing to the predicted productivity of the future. In fact, computers are already a feature of many types of businesses, especially government.(19) The emphasis on computers is expected to lead to changes in the nature of supervision because it will also lead to a reliance on the knowledge of workers as technicians. The resultant emphasis on knowledge will mean that management will appear less a hierarchy than a team effort of equals.(20) Local governments, then can employ not only the capabilities of computerized technology, they can also develop team management techniques in their managers.
To counteract the deemphasis on educational skills needed in the future workforce, especially the younger entry-level employees, local governments may choose to implement several variations on scholarships or fellowships. CitiCorp has developed a mentor/fellowship program for minority employees combining scholarships with the guidance of executives interested in the employees' futures with the corporation.(21) Educational leave, tuition reimbursement and reduced job responsibilities to permit additional study time are other strategies used by governments to encourage employees to advance their educational levels.
Employee loyalty and morale can be encourage through rewards for suggesting cost-saving ideas to governments. Shenandoah Life Insurance Company of Roanoke, Virginia is a private sector business which has realized success and savings with just such an incentive program.22 The Commonwealth of Virginia has also implemented an employee incentive program featuring monetary awards for suggestions which help to save money for State agencies.
To increase job satisfaction for employees, some experts suggest that the jobs themselves be redesigned. Three approaches to job design which have been used, according to Randall S. Schuler, are job rotation, job enlargement and job enrichment.(23)
Tomorrow's employees are expected to be both older and members of two-paycheck households, so they will be interested in individually designed benefit packages. The needs of working women and mothers both now and in the future have been well documented, and their need for day-care or alternatives such as voucher systems.(24) In addition, concerns about the care of aging parents will become a growing issue for the employees of the future. AT&T recognized this priority in its proposed benefits package in contract negotiations with the Communications Workers of America.(25) In general, future employees will be more interested in benefits packages designed to meet their individual needs.
To become more competitive in a shrinking labor market with the private sector and state and federal government agencies, local governments will have to offer competitive salaries and opportunities for career advancement. Some suggested strategies for recruiting high-quality employees include aggressive recruitment techniques, including radio and television and on-site job fairs.(26)
Employers have also become aware of the illiteracy problems faced by their employees. A greater percentage of the new workers are, after all, expected to be minorities and immigrants, groups historically associated with reading and other educational problems. Corporations and governments at all levels are beginning now to support programs to raise the educational levels of high school dropouts and other at-risk groups.(27)
Because we, as public administration practitioners and students of trends affecting the future, have an interest in the changing shape of the public workplace, we decided to investigate the extent to which local governments and public personnel practitioners in Virginia have identified and are preparing for the changes observed in the literature.
Study Methodology
A survey instrument was developed to measure the extent to which local governments in Virginia are aware of the factors which will affect the nature of the workplace and the workers of the twenty-first century. The major sections of the survey included one asking for respondents' reactions to statements made in the literature about the changes in demographics affecting workers, the changes in the nature of work, the increases projected in local government employment, and the changes in workers'values. The remaining sections of the survey involved identification of the strategies suggested in the literature for adjusting to the changes in the workplace. Respondents were asked to describe whether they made use of such strategies and whether they planned to increase or decrease their use of them. Finally, respondents were asked to rank the strategies in terms of their importance to the responding local government.
The survey population covered local jurisdictions in Virginia with populations over 25,000. Respondents were personnel directors (33%), professional personnel staff (21%), other professional staff (4%), county administrators/city managers (25%), assistant county managers/assistant city managers (14.5%) and clerical staff (2%).
Study Results
Of the 57 local jurisdictions chosen for the survey, 48, or 84.2% responded in time to be included in this study. The population of those responding ranged from 25,500 to 687,800 based on the latest available census data. The number of full-time equivalent general government employees as of July 1, 1989 for the responding jurisdictions ranged from a low 25 to a high 8,936.
Questions concerning respondents' perceptions about statements describing the workplace in the year 2000 can be grouped into four areas. Respondents were asked to use a standard Likert scale to indicate whether they strongly agree, agree, or undecided or disagree with each statement. The first group concerns perceptions about whether the respondents believe that the numbers of employees in their jurisdiction will increase are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1
Questions SA A U D SD
The number of jobs in
our local government will 62.5% 25% 6.3% 4.2% 2.1%
increase by the year 2000.
The majority of respondents, over 87%, agreed that the number of jobs in their local jurisdiction would increase. This response is consistent with information in the literature which suggests that there will be an increase in government jobs at the local and state levels and a corresponding decrease of jobs at the federal level.
Two questions asked for respondents' opinions about changes in the nature of work in the next century. The responses to these questions are shown in Figure 2. TABULAR DATA OMITTED
Respondents indicated by a rate over 97%, that the work performed in their jurisdictions will become more technical and will rely on advanced technology, a further indication of consistency with literature available on national trends. Only slightly over 2% disagreed with the statement.
Several survey questions concerned the effects of demographical changes on the workers who will be available to fill local government jobs in the year 2000. Results of respondents' answers to these items is provided in Figure 3.
Virginia local governments in this survey perceive the aging of the workforce in their jurisdictions but do not agree that their workforce will be less educated than it should be, a variance with the national indicators. Most local governments agree that women and minorities will occupy more local government jobs in the next century but are divided on the perception of increase in immigrant workers. Further analysis of the data might show a geographical or demographic correlation to the distribution of responses to these questions.
The perceptions of Virginia's local governments' estimates of changes in workers' values were measured. The results of these questions are demonstrated in Figure 4.
Local governments responding to the survey agree with statements that their workers will value independence and diversity in their work. Of those responding 22.9%, however, indicate that they are undecided about how much workers in their localities will become more interested in self-fulfillment than the traditional work-ethic. This uncertainty is reTABULAR DATA OMITTED flected in the reporting of between 22% and 29% of respondents who indicated that they are undecided in two of the four questions in this group.
Strategies were suggested to the respondents as ways to respond to the challenges of the twenty-first century. These strategies were presented on the survey in two groups. On set deals with employee needs, the other with job or work environment requirements. Respondents indicated whether they do or do not currently utilize the strategy and whether they expect to provide it in the year 2000. Figure 5 shows the responses to strategies which are related to values in the workplace. Percentages are recorded to show that the respondents currently uses the strategy and plans to increase its use in the next century (Yes/will increase), the respondent currently uses the strategy but plans to decrease its use in the next century (Yes/will decrease), the respondent does not currently use the strategy but plans to increase its use in the next century (No/will increase), or the respondent does not currently use the strategy in the next century (No/will not use). TABULAR DATA OMITTED
The strategies employed by the local governments in the study involve employee input into decisions and employee incentives. If the information in Figure 5 is combined on the basis of adding yes responses, we find that individual career development, establishment of career ladders and encouraging employee input into decision-making are strategies which local governments presently use most extensively. To examine future intent to employ the strategies, we add the percentages showing intent to increase. Local governments indicate that they intend to use all of the strategies in this category by heavy percentages of between 50% to 95%, demonstrating that local governments are aware of these strategies as potential vehicles for addressing employee values in the workplace.
The literature stresses the need for education strategies to deal with deficiencies in workers' educational levels. Nine of the strategies in the survey involved approaches to dealing with inadequate levels of education among workers of the next century. Figure 6 displays the responses to these questions.
Educational leave, employee training and tuition reimbursement are the current favored methods for encouraging employees to increase their educational levels. Sabbatical leave and incentive programs, such as those providing reduced job responsibilities were not favored as current strateTABULAR DATA OMITTED gies by half of the respondents in the survey. In terms of future intentions, the use of educational leave and tuition reimbursement increase to over 78%. Remedial education, while used by over 52% of the responding localities now, is expected to increase to over 79% in use as a strategy. Similarly, respondents indicate a strong current use of employee training, with no localities indicating that they do not intend to use this strategy.
Other strategies mentioned in the literature as responses to employee needs relate to the benefits provided by employers. The local governments in the survey indicated a wide variety of benefits currently provided for their employees as well as strategies they plan for the future. Figure 7 documents their responses.
Well over half of the responding jurisdictions report sick leave available for maternity, but over 40% indicate no sick leave for paternity and no intention to establish it. If the percentages for increased use of the strategy are combined, however, over 49% of the responding counties responded that they intend to increase paternity sick leave. Over 64% of respondents indicate an intention to have on-site day care or a voucher system, although only slightly over 6% indicate that they currently provide the service. Catastrophic illness funds are currently provided by only sightly over 6% of the local governments participating in the study, but over 43% intend to increase the use of this strategy. An interesting note, however, is that exactly 50% of the respondents do not intend to provide this benefit to employees. Overall, Virginia local governments indicate an awareness of services cited in the literature which deal with future benefits needs of employees.
Figure 8 describes Virginia's local government response to strategies identified in the literature as related to recruitment and retention. TABULAR DATA OMITTED
Respondents mentioned the use of such aggressive recruiting techniques as advertising and the use of employment agencies and orientation programs. Over 60% of the participating localities indicated that they currently make use of internship programs, while over 77% intend to increase using them in the future. More than half of the respondents currently use competitive salary schedules, with more than 85% intending to increase using them in the next century. Ergonomics is used by only slightly over 13% of the respondents, although more than 48% indicate that they expect to increase its use in the future. Eighty-four percent of the respondents already have committed themselves to removing physical or attitudinal barriers, and this figure is expected to increase to over 94% by the twenty-first century, a reflection on the emphasis on EEO and affirmative action programs in recent years.
The remainder of the items provided as choices for respondents concerns factors related to employee motivation, aimed at increasing efficiency in local governments. The responses provided by the responding governments are provided in Figure 9. TABULAR DATA OMITTED
Respondents indicated the greatest use of permanent part-time jobs as a strategy to respond to changes in the work environment. Slightly over 91% of the local governments presently use part-time jobs on a permanent basis. This percentage is expected to remain at the same level by the twenty-first century. While over 70% of respondents currently use teams in the workplace, only slightly over 22% use quality circles, a similar form of eliciting employee input. Responding localities indicate that they expect to increase the use of teams: over 78% of respondents anticipate using this strategy in the next century. Quality circles as a strategy for involving employees in job-solving is expected to involved slightly over 53% of the responding localities in the year 2000.
In two sections of the survey, we asked the responding localities to rank the strategies in terms of their importance. Of the 42 local governments who participated in the survey, 27 ranked all items in succession as requested. The strategies which were ranked the most important include:
Job sharing
Employee incentive(bonuses or additional leave)
Flexible benefit packages
Encouraging employee input into decision-making
Employee training (in-house or seminars away from the job)
Aggressive recruitment (advertising and employment agencies)
Remedial education for employees
The selection of these strategies reflects a growing concern for employee benefits, participation in agency decision processes and the realization that increased attention is necessary to obtain well-qualified employees for local government jobs. Particularly revealing is the inclusion of remedial education, an indication that local governments in Virginia have become aware of the increased need for basic education among their employees.
In addition to ranking the strategies which seemed most important, respondents were also asked to rank strategies which were perceived as least important in recruitment, retention and motivation for them in the next century. The strategies chosen least important included:
Recreational opportunities for employees
Sabbatical leave
Group legal plan for reduced legal fees for employees
On-site job fair
Participation in apprenticeship programs
Use of ergonomics to redesign jobs
Most of these strategies have been cited in the literature as employed by private businesses, some recently mentioned in contract negotiations. As some of the newest ideas in plans to deal with the personnel issues of the twenty-first century, they represent a sizeable investment of time, money, or both. Experimentation with these strategies may occur in the future.
Summary and Conclusion
Local governments in the public sector in Virginia have indicated their favored strategies for confronting the challenges in the next century. Such personnel methods as encouraging employee input into agency decisions, use of educational leave or tuition reimbursement, employee training, and sick leave for maternity purposes are clearly focused in the needs of workers as well as the benefit to the local governments. These strategies infer that local personnel officers in Virginia believe that there is correlation between employee satisfaction and agency achievement of goals and objectives.
Local government personnel offices in Virginia intend to respond to the challenges which will face them in the twenty-first century. An awareness exists that measures must be taken to deal with changes in the nature of work, the workers and workers' values. These is no doubt that the public sector workplace will become more complex and diverse. Likewise, the practice of personnel offices in the local public sector will have to become more diverse and respond in more flexible ways to accommodate the changes which the literature warns are almost upon us.
Notes
1. The Hudson Institute, Workforce 2000: Work and Workers for the 21st Century(, (Indianapolis: The Hudson Institute, 1987), p. xvi.
2. Ibid., p. xviii.
3. Ibid., p. xviii.
4. Ibid., p. xxi
5. Martha I. Finney, "Planning Today for the Future's Changing Shape," Personnel Administrator, January, 1989, vol. 34, no. 1, p.45. Se also Phillip Longman, "The Challenge of and Aging Society, The Futurist, September-October, 1988, vol. XXII, no. 5, pp.33-37andMarvinJ. Cetron, Wanda Rocha and Rebecca Luckins, "Into the 21st Century: Long-Term Trends Affecting the United States," The Futurist, vol. XXII, no. 4, pp. 29.40.
6. Robert W. Goddard, "Work Force 2000," Personnel Journal February, 1989, vol. 68, no. 2, p. 69.
7. Philip Longman, "The Challenge of an Aging Society," The Futurist, September-October, 1988, vol. XXII, no. 5, pp. 33-37.
8. Ibid. See also Workforce 2000, p. xix.
9. Martha I. Finney, p. 44
10. Phillip Longman, pp. 33-37.
11. The Hudson Institute, Workforce 2000, p. xx. See also Katherine Calos, "Corporations Wake up to Child Care Needs," The Ricmond News Leader, MOnday, May 29, 1989, p. 13.
12. Marvin J. Cetron, Wanda Rocha and Rebecca Luckins, The Futurist, July-August 1988, vol. XXII, no. 4, pp. 29.40.
13. The Hudson Institute, Workforce, p. xx
14. Ibid.
15. Martha I. Finney, "Planning Today for the Futurre's Changing Shape," p.44. See also The Hudson Institute. Civil Service 2000, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988, p. 19.
16. Joseph T. Plummer, "Changing Values: The New Emphasis on Self-Actualization," The Futurist, January-February 1989, vol. XXIII, no. 1, p.8.
17. Ibid, p.10.
18. Marvin J. Cetron, Wanda Rocha and Rebecca Luckins, "Into the 21st Century: Long-Term Trends Affecting the United States," pp.29-40.
19. Robert W. Goddard, "Work Force 2000," Personnel Journal, February, 1989, vol. 68. no. 2, p. 69.
20. Ibid.
21. Martha I. Finney, "Planning Today for the Future's Changing Shape," p. 47.
22. Martha I. Finney," Planning Today for the Future's Chaning Shape," p. 48.
23. Randall S. Schuler, Personnel and Human Resource Management, Third Edition, (St. Paul: West Publishing Company, 1987), pp. 44849.
24. Katherine Calos, "Corporations wake up to child care needs," Richmond News Leader, 29 May, 7989, p. 14.
25. Frank Swoboda, "AT&T Pact in Vanguard On Family-Care Benefits," The Washington Post, 29 May, 1989 p. A-1.
26. Randall S. Schuler, Personnel and Human Resource Management, Third Edition, (St. Paul: West Publishing Company, 1987), pp. 136-141.
27. Paula Crawford Squires, "Educating workers is a win-win s situation," Richmond Times'Dispatch, 29 May, 1989, p. A-6.
References
Books
Naisbitt, Jolm and Aburdene, Patricia. Megatrend 2000. new York: William Morrow and company, Inc. 1990.
Parker, Mike and Slaugher, Jane. Choosing Sides: Unions and the Team Concept. Boston: South End Press. 1988.
Schwartz, Gall Garfield, Ph.D. and Newkirk, William. The work Revolution. New York: Rawson Associates. 1983.
Schuler, Randall S. Personnel and Huan Reource Management Third Edition. St. Paul: West Publishing Company, 1987.
Reports
Johnston, William B. Civil Service 2000. U.S. Office of Personnel Management: The Hudson Institute. 1988.
Leadership for America: Rebuilding the Public Service. The National Commission on the Public Service. Washington, D.C. 1989.
Workforce 2000: Work and Workers for the 21st Century. Executive Summary. Indianapolis: The Hudson Institute. 1987.
Journal Articles
Cetron, Marvin J., Rocha, Wanda and Luckins, Rebecca. "into the 21st Century: Long-Term Trends Affecting the United States." The Futurist 22 (July-August, 1988): 2940.
Finney, Martha 1. "Planning Today for the Future's Changing Shape." Personnel Administrator 34 (January, 1989)" 4449.
Goddard, Robert W. "Workforce 2000." Personnel Journal. 68 (February, 1989). (64-71.
Hays, Steven W. "Environmental Change and the Personnel Function: A Review of the Research." Public Personnel Management vol. 18 No. 2 (Summer 1989): 110-126.
Levine, Charles. "The Federal Government in the Year 2000: Administrative Legacies of the Reagan Years." Public Administration Review. 46 (May/June, 1986): 195-206.
Longman, Phillip. "The Challenge of an Aging Society." The Futurist 22 (September/October 1988): 33-37.
Plummer, Joseph T. "Changing Values: The New Emphasis on Self-Actualization." The Futurist 23 (January-February, 1989)" 8-13.
Russell, Anne M. "25 Hottest Careers." Working Women (July, 1989): 67-78.
Newspaper Articles
Bohlen, Celestine. "Unions Say A.T.& T. Pact Sets New Standards for Family Benefits." Times (New York), 30 May, 198% p. A-14.
Calos, Katherine. "Corporations Wake up to Child Care Needs." Richmond News Leader, 29 May 1989, p. 14.
Quinn, Jane Bryant. "Employers being forced to deal with child care." Richmond News Leader, 3 July, 1989, p. B-25.
Squires, Paula Crawford. "Lack of Reading Skills Alarms Business Leaders." Richmond TimesDispatch, 28 May 1989, p. A-1.
"Educating Workers is a Win-Win Situation." Richmond Times-Dispatch, 29 May 1989, p. A-6.
Swoboda, Frank. "A.T & T. Pact in Vanguard on Family-Care Benefits." Washington Post, 29 May, 1989, p.A.1.
"Beyond the Glass Ceiling: Businesswomen in the '90's." Richmond News Leader, Metro Business Special Report, 26 June, 1989, pp. B-1 - B23.
Professor Wooldridge holds graduate degrees from the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Southern California. He has authored or coauthored more than sixty papers/training modules on such topics as public budgeting, revenue management, productivity improvement and public sector training and education.
Jennifer Wester holds graduate degrees from the University of Virginia and Virginia Commonwealth University, where she is studying for the Doctor of Public Administration degree. She was a contributor to The Future of the Capital Area 2000/2010 and has more than thirteen years of experience in government service at various levels.
Gale Document Number:A11080652